Atomic Advantage

The United States benefits from a world-leading innovation ecosystem that can continue advancing quantum sensor performance and deployability. The 2018 National Quantum Initiative Act (NQIA) has boosted federal funding for quantum research and development (R&D) from $200 million to roughly $1 billion per year, fueling American breakthroughs from fundamental science through prototype development.² This report found that U.S. research institutions account for 44 percent of the world’s most cited quantum sensing publications—the largest global share—while a growing industrial base of roughly 20 companies—from startups to established defense contractors—is delivering cutting-edge prototypes and early commercial solutions. Many of these technological advances have benefited from forward-looking Department of Defense (DoD) initiatives that emphasize rapid iteration and demonstrations on military platforms, such as the Defense Innovation Unit’s (DIU’s) ongoing Transition of Quantum Sensors program.³

Yet major hurdles remain, and they extend well beyond technical bottlenecks. Despite the Trump administration’s embrace of U.S. quantum leadership, Congress has yet to reauthorize the NQIA’s core R&D programs that expired in 2023, compromising sustained quantum innovation at civilian agencies. Private investment is also uncertain: Although the United States attracts the largest share of private capital in quantum technology, about 80 percent flows to the more nascent field of quantum computing, while only 9 percent goes to quantum sensing.⁴ This disparity reinforces the vital role of robust government support in advancing quantum PNT, both through direct federal spending—especially in critical defense programs—and by sending market signals to the private sector.

Unfortunately, recent defense spending bills reinforce the imbalance by also favoring quantum computing over sensing, despite quantum sensors’ ability to address major GPS vulnerabilities affecting the warfighter today.⁵ Additionally, the DoD’s quantum programs lack unified authority or alignment for maximum impact, while its PNT Oversight Council has focused on modernizing GPS itself—an effort now facing multiyear delays and multibillion-dollar overruns—rather than integrating alternative PNT solutions like quantum sensing.⁶

Inconsistent demand from both industry and government has left quantum sensor developers with a thin supplier base for critical components, such as low-noise lasers and atomic vapor cells, and for accessing advanced micro- and photonic fabrication facilities. Because quantum sensing and quantum computing share many underlying components, neglecting this common supply chain jeopardizes U.S. leadership across the entire quantum technology sector.

Meanwhile, the People’s Republic of China—the United States’ closest quantum competitor—is not wasting any time. China’s quantum sensing research is expanding quickly in both volume and impact, backed by a state-led strategy and tight civil-military fusion, consistent funding, and a formidable manufacturing capacity that could allow it to surpass U.S. technology development and adoption.

Without clear and targeted steps to address these hurdles, U.S. quantum sensing risks languishing in the “Valley of Death,” preventing the development of resilient solutions to GPS vulnerabilities and eroding America’s quantum edge. To accelerate the development and deployment of quantum sensors for next-generation PNT, this report outlines policy recommendations across four critical domains.

Prioritize Equipping the Warfighter with Resilient, Next-Generation PNT

The DoD must accelerate the integration of quantum sensors into military platforms. First, it should establish a Joint Quantum Office in the Pentagon, empowered to coordinate and sustain funding, prototyping, and acquisition of quantum technologies across the armed services. In parallel, the PNT Oversight Council should bolster the department’s pursuit of alternative PNT solutions by issuing explicit platform priorities and adoption timelines, as well as by mandating modular designs and open standards that enable the flexible integration of emerging PNT technologies. To bridge the Valley of Death, the department should also expand rapid prototyping efforts on operational platforms, such as the DIU’s Transition of Quantum Sensors, as well as low-rate initial production commitments like the Accelerate the Procurement and Fielding of Innovative Technologies program under the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering.⁷ Demonstrations aboard ground, sea, air, and space platforms, paired with a firm pathway to acquisition, will ensure that next-generation atomic clocks, inertial sensors, gravimeters, and magnetometers move swiftly from the lab to the warfighter, delivering precise, resilient PNT in contested environments.

Strengthen the U.S. Supply Chain and Advanced Manufacturing Base for Quantum Devices and Components

Building robust domestic supply chains and advanced fabrication capabilities is critical to transitioning quantum sensors from prototypes to large-scale deployment. Given commonalities in their underlying components and fabrication techniques, the same investments will also benefit the emerging U.S. quantum computing ecosystem. The DoD should continuously monitor vulnerabilities in the quantum sensing supply chain, working with the Departments of Commerce and State and the intelligence community to address gaps and diversify sources for specialized components and materials. In parallel, expanding access and capabilities and reducing turnaround times at integrated photonics fabrication facilities—including AIM Photonics, Sandia National Laboratories, and new foundries through the Microelectronics Commons Hubs—would support the miniaturization and integration of quantum sensors at scale. Fully funding the DoD’s Quantum Industrial Base Acceleration Project can sustain these efforts, reduce reliance on overseas suppliers, and ensure that U.S. developers can reliably produce cutting-edge quantum sensors for both defense and commercial markets.

Expand Quantum PNT to Critical Infrastructure and the Broader Civilian Market

The Departments of Homeland Security, Transportation, Commerce, and Energy should work alongside the DoD to move quantum PNT beyond military applications and into critical civilian infrastructure, including telecommunications, transportation, banking, and energy. Key steps include updating the national strategy for quantum sensing with explicit timelines and performance benchmarks specific to PNT; forming an interagency quantum PNT working group under the National Science and Technology Council to coordinate R&D, field demonstrations, and develop standards; and fostering partnerships between technology developers and end users through pilot projects and targeted financial incentives. These activities will raise awareness of quantum PNT’s advantages, align sensor performance with real-world requirements, and generate a strong demand signal that would attract private investments—all of which can accelerate the development and adoption of quantum-enhanced PNT solutions.

Nurture Robust U.S. Quantum Innovation Ecosystems for Long-Term Sustainability

A vibrant innovation ecosystem of research and talent is essential for sustained U.S. leadership in quantum technologies. Policymakers should reauthorize the NQIA to reaffirm federal commitment and update the national quantum strategy. Simultaneously, agencies like the National Institute of Standards and Technology, National Science Foundation, and Department of Energy must significantly expand quantum engineering R&D and invest in advanced test beds, materials, and fabrication techniques to improve sensor performance and reduce size, weight, and power. Equally critical is cultivating a robust domestic talent pipeline—from technician programs to graduate degrees—through initiatives such as quantum workforce hubs, industry–academic partnerships, and specialized curricula in engineering and physics. By fostering cutting-edge research and skilled professionals, the United States will drive ongoing breakthroughs in quantum sensing and remain at the forefront of next-generation technology development.

Quantum sensors offer a transformative opportunity not only to safeguard U.S. PNT capabilities against evolving threats but also to advance America’s broader technological ambitions. The United States stands at a pivotal juncture: With decisive, coordinated action, it can leapfrog adversaries by moving quantum sensing innovations rapidly from the lab to operational deployment. By adopting this report’s recommendations, policymakers can ultimately ensure that America’s leadership in quantum technologies endures—bringing substantial benefits to national security and long-term economic competitiveness in the emerging quantum era.

Introduction

In today’s escalating geopolitical competition for technological supremacy, a critical race is unfolding at the atomic level. By harnessing the unique behavior of atoms, quantum technologies have the potential to transform how we measure, process, and communicate information. Quantum computers—capable of solving specific classes of problems orders of magnitude faster than classical supercomputers—could both power molecular simulations that accelerate the discovery of novel drugs and materials as well as break the encryption protocols that safeguard the world’s digital infrastructure. At the same time, quantum networks could interconnect quantum systems to work together on complex tasks as well as enable ultrasecure communications.

If the promise of quantum computing and networking remains over the horizon, the real-world applications of quantum sensing have already arrived. By detecting minute changes in atomic energy levels, these sensors achieve unprecedented sensitivity, precision, and long-term stability—redefining how we measure time and fundamental physical forces like gravity and electromagnetism. Although this technology can transform fields ranging from resource exploration to biomedical diagnostics, quantum sensing applications for positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) are arguably the most ubiquitous, applicable, and critical to national security. Atomic clocks—the most mature quantum technology in use today—already power the U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS) underpinning PNT services for defense systems across land, sea, air, and space domains. GPS is also the primary source of precision PNT for critical infrastructure, including power grids, telecommunications networks, financial transactions, and numerous sectors of the global economy.

The ubiquity of GPS applications makes GPS an appealing target for geopolitical adversaries, creating serious national security vulnerabilities. Conveniently for the attackers, GPS is both essential to modern life and inherently susceptible to attacks. GPS satellites, which transmit information through low-power radiofrequency (RF) signals, are especially vulnerable to jamming, spoofing, and physical attacks. This is not a hypothetical—electronic warfare has been a mainstay in ongoing conflicts in Eastern Europe and the Middle East, while recent analyses reveal America’s adversaries are investing in enhancing their antisatellite capabilities.⁸ Together, these developments paint a sobering picture of the escalating risks to the U.S. PNT infrastructure.

As nations grapple with the potentially catastrophic consequences of losing reliable GPS signals, quantum sensors could mitigate risks and revolutionize PNT capabilities once again. Next-generation atomic clocks and quantum accelerometers, gyroscopes, gravimeters, and magnetometers can serve as local, trusted sources of PNT that do not rely on vulnerable external signals. Quantum sensors are poised not only to provide a reliable GPS backup but also to potentially surpass current alternatives: Quantum can deliver PNT that is more accurate, stable, and stealthy, even in contested environments or where RF signals are naturally degraded. Moreover, they promise to enable emerging technologies with stringent PNT requirements, such as sixth-generation (6G) wireless networks.

In advancing the deployment of quantum sensors, the United States has a strategic opportunity to address pressing GPS vulnerabilities while reinforcing its global quantum technology leadership. The returns on investment could be far-reaching, creating significant benefits for defense, economic resilience, and geopolitical competition. Enhanced quantum sensors will not only secure PNT for warfighters, critical infrastructure, and the broader commercial sector, but also drive innovation in less obvious but equally important applications. Quantum sensors’ capacity for superior measurement can also help detect hidden adversary tunnels and submarines, advance security inspections of computer chips, enable portable biomedical diagnostics, and even unravel the mysteries of dark matter.⁹ Moreover, advances in shared supply chains and engineering—such as hardening quantum sensors against environmental interference and further miniaturizing their components—will likely catalyze breakthroughs in other emerging fields facing similar technical bottlenecks, from quantum computing and networking to advanced semiconductors and biotechnology.

As global competition for quantum leadership intensifies, so does the urgency that the United States accelerate its efforts in the strategic field of quantum sensing. For decades, the People’s Republic of China (PRC)—America’s closest quantum competitor—has consistently made quantum technologies a strategic priority, on par with artificial intelligence (AI) and semiconductors. Through aggressive investments and government-driven initiatives, China is rapidly advancing its quantum capabilities, with the potential to reshape international standards and secure a competitive edge in both defense and economic innovation. The stakes are high: Maintaining U.S. quantum leadership is essential not only for national security but also for preserving the technological and economic advantages that underpin America’s global influence.

Although the United States currently leads the world in quantum PNT, it cannot take its lead for granted. Decades of federal research and development (R&D) funding have positioned U.S. universities and federal labs at the forefront of high-impact research on advanced atomic clocks and quantum navigation sensors. A growing ecosystem of U.S. companies, many founded by scientists produced by these same research institutions, have developed and demonstrated integrated prototypes aboard U.S. military platforms, with some solutions starting to reach the market. However, significant challenges persist. Many quantum sensors remain stuck in the research and prototype stages, and even those already on the market need to be made more robust to harsh environments and reduced in size, weight and power (SWaP) consumption and cost. Supply chain vulnerabilities, limited access to specialized fabrication facilities, and low private investment exacerbate these technical challenges, hindering the transition of laboratory breakthroughs to production and large-scale manufacturing.

Despite formidable challenges, progress is within reach. With sustained and decisive leadership from the U.S. government in partnership with industry and academia, quantum sensors could be matured and adopted for PNT in military missions and critical infrastructure within a few years. Failure to act risks relegating the world’s most capable sensors to the “Valley of Death,” where innovations falter during the transition from lab to market. Ultimately, policy inaction would squander a unique opportunity to harness America’s quantum sensing innovation to address GPS vulnerabilities, strengthen the resilience of our fighting forces and economy, and advance broader American leadership in emerging technologies.

This report explores how the United States can accelerate the development and deployment of quantum sensors for next-generation PNT. It begins by reviewing the national security vulnerabilities inherent in the current GPS and outlining the projected role of quantum sensing in delivering precise and reliable PNT. It then provides an overview of the main quantum sensor technologies and their performance and maturity compared to existing PNT alternatives. The report then assesses the U.S. quantum sensing ecosystem—from the overarching national strategy and specific government programs to the country’s research and industrial base—and offers a comparison to China. The report then reviews the major challenges hindering widespread adoption of quantum PNT in the United States. It concludes with targeted policy recommendations to accelerate the development and adoption of quantum sensors, achieve a secure, resilient PNT infrastructure for the United States, and expand American leadership in quantum technologies.